Plate Tectonics

Mantle convection is caused by convection currents carrying heated materials from the interior of the Earth to the Earth's surface. The Earth's surface is also known as the lithosphere, which is located above the asthenoshpere, and is broken up into multiple plates that are continuously moving.
There are two different types of plates that the lithosphere is broken up into. Oceanic and continental. Where two types of the plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries can be classified in three different ways. There can be divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries. Each perform different actions and can create different physical features.

Famous scientist Alfred Wegener developed a jaw dropping theory stating that all of the continents were once whole, but then later broken apart. This large land mass was soon called Pangea. Wegener cam up with this theory  after studying both South America as well as Africa and noticing that they fit together like a puzzle. Wegener's theory impressed many people but had a major flaw as well. With such a great idea, Wegener lacked something very important, and that was evidence of the continents moving. Wegener never found an answer to his question, but later on in history the question became answered.

Plate tectonics affect our everyday life in both good and bad ways. They do so by creating the landforms we live on everyday, as well as replenish it. On the bad side, plate tectonics can form deadly hazards such as earthquakes and volcanoes that can be devastating.

Oceanic/Continental Convergent Subduction Boundary

Planetary Motion

The solar nebula theory is a popular model that explains the formation of our solar system.This eventually evolved into the theory of how the universe was formed as well. The theory states that a giant star exploded and created unstable gas clouds. The huge gas cloud then collapsed on itself and is supposed to create more stars, but planets were a result due to a natural result of star formation that lasted for at least 100 million years. During this time rocky planets formed towards the inner part of the cloud where the temperature is more hot than the more outer part of the cloud where gas planets were formed.

Over time scientists have developed theories about the solar system and the movement of planets within it. One famous scientist has come up with three laws describing planetary movement and is know as Kepler's Three Laws. His first law is known as "The Law Of Ellipses" which explains that the planets orbit the sun in a path that is called an ellipse. An ellipse is a special curve in which the sum of the distances from every point on the curve to two other points is a constant.The two other points are known as the foci of the ellipse. (The Physics Classroom) The sun is always located at one of the foci of each planets ellipse. This relates to Newtons first law stating an object will stay in motion unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. Because a planet is moving in an ellipse motion, this law states that there must be some force acting upon the planet to make it orbit the sun.

Kepler's second law, also referred to as the "Law Of Equal Areas" describes the speed of any planet while orbiting the sun. The speed of any planet that moves through space is constantly changing. Scientists can calculate the force that is required to keep the Earth on its circular path by using Newtons famous equation F=MA. A planet moves fastest when it is closer to the sun and slowest when it is further from the sun. Even with that said, if an imaginary line were drawn from the center of the planet to the center of the sun, that line would equal the same area in each time period.

Kepler's third, and final law is also know as the law of harmonies. This law compares the orbital period and radius of orbit of a planet to those of other planets. (The Physics Classroom) This law is the only law made by Kepler that involves the characteristics of not just one planet, but multiple planets. There is a force that attracts all the planets towards the Sun, so there must be an equal and opposite force attracting the Sun towards the planets due to Newtons third law. The sun does give an opposite reaction, but not as extreme as the reaction is on the planets. An example of comparing two planets is:

Planet	Period (s)	Average Distance (m)	T2/R3 (s2/m3)
Earth	3.156 x 107 s	1.4957 x 1011	2.977 x 10-19
Mars	5.93 x 107 s	2.278 x 1011	2.975 x 10-19     (The Physics  Classroom)

Climate Risk: The Worst is yet to Come

Scientists have reported that climate change is already becoming a problem on every continent on earth. They also stated that if greenhouse emissions are not lessened, this problem could become much worse. A major problem that is a result of climate change would be that the world's food supply is diminishing; this could prove fatal for poorer nations. As well as that, sea levels are continuously rising causing people to be forced out of their homes and relocated to different areas.

CO2 emissions

As the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gasses, the United States has the responsibility to help poorer countries who are being affected by global warming. By providing financial assistance for these countries, they can adapt to the effects of global warming and become more stable.  

The United States is also affected by global warming. Before helping other countries, the United States has to first find an efficient way to help itself. By finding an efficient way for the United States to adapt to global warming, this will provide an efficient procedure to be used with poorer nations.

The Future of Fusion

ITER

In the near future, maybe even a decade or sooner, the most complex machine ever built by mankind will be up and running. This machine is called the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). To perform fusion, ITER will have to achieve temperatures of extreme heat, its insides getting to more than two hundred million degrees Celsius. This is ten times the heat of our suns core. When ITER reaches these extreme temperatures, it will be able to perform fusion. Although, there would be one small problem. No substance on earth would be able to withstand such tremendous heat. To solve this, ITER will use a "magnetic bottle" to keep its extremely hot contents contained.

To create this much advanced technology, it will take a lot devotion, preparation, funding, and time. The cost of ITER is unknown, but peoples estimates are gradually growing, making ITER the most expensive scientific instrument on earth. Although, if ITER succeeds, the world will have a solution to its energy problems for the next thirty million years. Scientists also hope that with ITER, they can generate power with no carbon, almost no pollution, and very little radioactive waste. Plus, ITER runs only on lithium and seawater and would never melt down.

Blowing up Sodium!

This is what happens when you combine sodium and water with a class of freshman earth science students.

Murder Lab

Situation:

Yesterday at 3 AM, at Mike's Awesome Bakery in Francestown, NH the baker arrived to find his assistant baker dead: lying in a pool of blood.  The victim's body was covered in a white powder.  

In an attempt to find the source of the white powder, investigators collect multiple samples from the bakery (baking soda, flour, baking powder, powdered milk, cornstarch).

Investigators are in the process of interviewing employees of the bakery to narrow their field of suspects.  They are also gathering clothing samples from employees to find a match for the white powder.

Materials at your disposal:

- baking soda
- baking powder

- flour

- cornstarch

- vinegar

- iodine solution

- universal indicator

- water

- lab materials (beakers, stirrers, pipettes, etc.)

Objective:

To identify the unknown substance (powder) covering the body.

Procedure:

1. Gather and arrange materials (see materials list, and picture)

2. Test the reaction that baking soda has with water, vinegar, iodine (add 2 drops to each powder)

3. Repeat step 2 for each substance

4. Test the pH of each substance

- Add 2 drops of the universal indicator to each substance

- Record the reaction

- Compare to the other substances

5. Look at all the data

6. Conclude, and complete lab sheet

Analysis: Complete the data table below.

Table:

Test Solutions	Baking Soda	Baking Powder	Flour	Cornstarch	Unknown
Water	Stayed on top (No reaction)	Absorbed (Physical reaction)	Stayed on top (No reaction)	Stayed on top (No reaction)	Absorbed (Physical reaction)
Vinegar	Fizzed, created a bubble (Chemical reaction)	Fizzed a little (Chemical reaction)	Stayed on top (No reaction)	Stayed on top (No reaction)	Fizzed a little (Chemical reaction)
Iodine	Soaked in (Physical reaction)	Turned purple, fizzed (Physical and chemical reaction)	Turned dark purple (Chemical change)	Turned purple (Chemical change)	Turned purple (Chemical change)
Indicator	Turned green (Chemical change)	Turned yellow/ orange (Chemical change)	Turned red (Chemical change)	Turned red (Chemical change)	Turned yellow/ orange (Chemical change)

Conclusion:

The investigators should look for baking soda when examining the suspects clothing. The physical and chemical changes of baking powder and the unknown substance were the same. As well as that, both substances have the same physical appearance.

Slingshotting Objects!

Introduction:
Today we’re going to talk about how to slingshot stuff. Well, not just any stuff, in this case we’re flinging a Rubik's Cube and a softball. Why, you ask? Recently we were wondering, “Does the shape of an object affect the distance it can be launched?” To find out, we decided to conduct a very scientific experiment of our own.

Hypothesis - Prediction: If the cube is used, then it won’t go as far as a sphere.

Hypothesis - Rationale: because the sphere is round so it’ll go farther

Independent (Manipulated) Variable: Both the softball and the Rubix Cube.

Dependent (Responding) Variable: The distance which each object is launched.

Constants: The slingshot, the person pulling back the slingshot, how far back the slingshot is pulled, and where they are launched.

Equipment: 1 softball, 1 rubix cube (with sink drain attached to match the mass of the softball), duct tape, 2 meter sticks, 1 trundle wheel (to measure the distance after the objects are launched), 1 slingshot (ours was homemade), and 1 sheet to record data.

Procedure:

1. gather materials: one softball/one rubix cube with same mass and size

one sling shot with markings of how far to launch

yardstick to measure distance

paper to record

2. prepare  materials

3. measure how far 1st object goes (x2)

4. measure how far 2nd object goes (x2)

5. get average for both

6. analyze, look to see which went further

DATA:

Softball Launch #1	29 m
Softball Launch #2	26 m
	Average
	27.5
Rubix Cube Launch #1	20 m
Rubix Cube Launch #2	13 m
	Average
	16.5 m

Analyis: Our experiment

Conclusion: Our hypothesis is correct because the softball went farther than the Rubix Cube every time. The scientific explanation for these results is that since the softball is round, it rolled farther after it was launched. The cube’s edges caused it to stop rolling sooner than the softball.